Using a Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) to Develop an Adaptive K-2 Literacy Intervention with Personalized Print Texts and App-Based Digital Activities

This study uses a Sequential Multiple Assignment Randomized Trial (SMART) design to develop and refine an adaptive summer literacy intervention for kindergarten through Grade 2 students from low-income households. The intervention combined personalized print texts with app-based digital activities and tested two approaches to context personalization: conceptually coherent texts (CCTs) that build domain knowledge around a single topic, and leveled texts (LTs) across multiple topics. Results showed that students in both conditions performed similarly on overall reading comprehension outcomes, though CCTs produced suggestive gains in science vocabulary. A key contribution of the study is its examination of how to support nonresponders—students whose families did not initially engage with the app. For these students, adding parent text-message reminders alongside app gamification led to significantly stronger gains in informational text comprehension than gamification alone. The findings highlight the value of adaptive designs for identifying effective combinations of print, digital tools, and family engagement strategies, as well as the importance of pairing technology with targeted supports to improve early reading outcomes.